Medieval neurosurgery: contributions from the Middle East, Spain, and Persia.

Modern neurological and spinal surgical techniques have been developed on the foundations established by predecessors. Modern 21st century neurosurgery begins in the Babylonian period, with the Edwin Smith papyrus. Throughout history, periods of enlightenment have resulted in advances in knowledge and understanding that have served as stepping stones for generations to come. As in other fields, in neurosurgery these periods of "enlightenment" have occurred in a variety of civilizations and time periods.