Race and military coalitions in the Middle Niger during the second half of the 19th century

In the latter half of the 19th century Futanke invaders and their allies toppled the Caliphate of Hamdallāhi. The Futanke and the Masinanke of Hamdallāhi shared a similar faith, language, and culture, and both had fought wars under the umbrella of jihad against non-Muslims and Muslims whose practice they considered unorthodox. Despite the anti-“pagan” rhetoric Futanke and Masinanke leaders often directed against people they called “black,” the instability of wars in the period from 1861 to 1890 necessitated the building of alliances that diminished the instrumental value of racial and religious exclusion. By accommodating non-Muslim allies, the Futanke built a strong coalition that eventually defeated their Muslim Fulbe enemies.